Research
Handouts
Research: An
Introduction
Sources of knowledge
•Tradition: accepted
as given on the basis of inherited customs
•Authority: comes
from people with expertise
•Experience
Trial and error
Intuition
Sources of knowledge
•Logical reasoning:
combines, intellectual faculties and
formal system of thought
•Disciplined research: the most
sophisticated method of acquiring knowledge.
Definitions
•Research is a
systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
Kerlinger,
1973
Definitions
Systematic – follows certain steps
Controlled – every step of the
investigation is planned
Empirical – evidence is on hand, there
is confidence in the results
Definitions
•Research in its
broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it
is the collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose
of prediction or explanation.
Treece and
Treece, 1974
Definitions
•Nursing research is
research for nursing. It includes the breadth and depth of the discipline of
nursing: the rehabilitative, therapeutic, and preventive aspects of nursing, as
well as the preparation of practitioners and personnel involved in the total
nursing sphere.
Definitions
•Nursing research is
defined as a scientific process that validates and refines existing knowledge
and generates new knowledge that directly and indirectly influences nursing
practice.
Burns and Grove,
2005
Purposes of Research
1. Describe
2. Explain
3. Predict
4. Control
•Describe -
involves identifying and understanding the nature of phenomena and sometimes
the relationship among them.
•Explain - It
clarifies the relationships among phenomena and identifies the reasons why
certain events occur. It could be the basis for conducting research for
prediction and control
•Predict - Through
prediction, one can estimate the probability of a specific outcome in a given
situation. However, predicting an outcome does not necessarily enable one to
modify or control the outcome.
•Control - If one
can predict the outcome of a situation, the next step is to control or
manipulate the situation to produce the desired outcome.
Nurses do research because…
•Nursing is a
profession
•Nursing should
contribute to the generation of new knowledge
•Through research,
nurses could evaluate and document their contributions to their clients’ health
and wellbeing and to the health care delivery system
Cruz-Earnshaw,
2007
Nurses do research because…
•RA 9173 Section 28 (e
)states that:
It shall be the duty of the nurse to:
(e) Undertake nursing and health human
resource development training and research which shall include, but not limited
to the development of advance nursing practice;
Classifications of
Research
•According to level of
investigation
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Experimental
Classifications of Research
•According to approach
1. Experimental
2. Non-experimental
Classifications of Research
•According to
measurement & data analysis
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
Classifications of Research
•According to time
frame
1. Longitudinal
2. Cross sectional
Classifications of Research
•According to motive
or objective
1. Basic research
2. Applied research
Classifications of Research
•According to time
line
1. Retrospective
2. Prospective
Classifications of Research
•According to research
environment
1. Field
2. Laboratory
Quantitative Research
•Quantitative research is the
investigation of phenomena that lend themselves to precise measurement and
quantification, often involving a rigorous and controlled design.
Quantitative Research Methods
•Descriptive –
provides an accurate portrayal or account of characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or group.
Quantitative Research Methods
•Correlational – involves
the systematic investigation of relationships/association between two or more
variables
Quantitative Research Methods
•Comparative – used to
describe the differences in variables in two or more groups in a natural
setting
Quantitative Research Methods
•Quasi-experimental – causal
relationships between two selected variables are examined through manipulation
of the independent variable but without control or randomization.
Quantitative Research Methods
•Experimental – it is an
objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting
and controlling phenomena. Characteristics include manipulation, control, and
randomization.
Quantitative Research Methods
•Ex post facto – the
independent variable is not manipulated, either because it is inherently
unmanipulable or because it occurred in the past
Qualitative Research
•Qualitative research is the
investigation of phenomena typically in an in-depth and holistic fashion,
through the collection of rich narrative materials using a flexible research
design.
Qualitative Research Methods
•Phenomenological –
describes an experience as they are lived by people
Qualitative Research Methods
•Grounded theory – discovers
what problems exist in a social scene and the process persons use to handle
them
Qualitative Research Methods
•Ethnographic – it is
associated with anthropology and focuses on the culture of a group of people,
with an effort to understand the world view of those under study.
Qualitative Research Methods
•Historical – a
narrative description or analysis of events that occurred in the remote or
recent past.
Qualitative Research Methods
•Philosophical inquiry –
involves using intellectual analysis to clarify meanings, makes values
manifest, identify ethics, and study the nature of knowledge
Qualitative Research Methods
•Case study –
involves a thorough, in-depth analysis of an individual, a group, or an
institution or other social units.
Qualitative Research Methods
•Critical theory – an
approach to viewing the world that involves a critique of society, with the
goal of envisioning new possibilities and effecting social change
Qualitative Research Methods
•Feminist research – seeks
to understand, typically through qualitative approaches, how gender and a
gendered social order shape women’s lives and their consciousness.
Mixed Methods Research
•TRIANGULATION – the use
of multiple methods to collect and interpret data about a phenomenon, so as to
converge on an accurate representation of reality
Steps in the Research Process
•Identification of
problem
•Review of related
literature
•Construction of a
framework
•Formulate the
hypothesis
•Select the research
design
•Select the sample
•Collect the data
•Analyze and interpret
the data
•Write the research
report
•Communicate the
research report
Major
Steps: Quantitative Study
•Phase I: The
Conceptual Phase
Step
1: Formulating and delimiting the
problem
Step
2: Reviewing the related research
literature
Step
3: Undertaking clinical fieldwork
Step
4: Defining the framework and conceptual definitions
Step
5: Formulating the hypothesis
•Phase II:
The Design and Planning Phase
Step
6: Selecting a research design
Step
7: Developing protocols for intervention
Step
8: Identifying the population to be studied
Step
9: Designing the sampling plan
Step
10: Specifying methods to measure variables
Step
11: Developing methods to protect human/animal rights
Step
12: Finalizing and reviewing the research plan
Phase III: The Empirical Phase
Step
13: Collecting the data
Step
14: Preparing data for analysis
Phase IV: The Analytic Phase
Step
15: Analyzing the data
Step
16: Interpreting the results
•Phase V:
The Dissemination Phase
Step
17: Communicating the findings
Step
18: Utilizing research evidence in practice
Activities:
Qualitative Study
Conceptualizing and planning a qualitative study
•Identifying
a research problem
•Doing a
literature review
•Selecting
and gaining entrée into research sites
Designing qualitative
studies
Addressing ethical issues
Activities:
Qualitative Study
Conducting a qualitative study
•Obtaining and
analyzing qualitative data
Disseminating qualitative findings
•Writing qualitative
research
What
is a research problem?
•A problem is a
condition requiring a solution.
•In research, a
problem statement is an expression of a dilemma or a disturbing situation that
needs investigation.
Sources
of research problems
•Personal experiences
and observations
•Readings
•Conversations with
peers, experts, clients
Attendance in conferences,
lectures
Everyday occurrences
Social and political issues affecting health
Characteristics
of a researchable problem
•Interest
•Usefulness
•Novelty
Feasibility of time and resources
Ethical
Availability of data
Ability of the researcher
Situations
manifesting a problem
•Absence of
information
•Incomplete
information
•Conflicting
information
A fact exists and you intend your
study to explain it.
There is a gap in
knowledge
The
research question
•The problem is
specifically stated in the form of a research question.
•The research question
should be clear, concise, and stated in measurable terms specifically in
quantitative research.
The
research question
•Example
What is the level of creativity among
senior student nurses of a center of excellence college in Mehsana in terms of originality
and flexibility?
The
title
•Functions of a title
1. It draws in summary form, the content of
the entire investigation.
2. It
serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis.
3. It enables the researcher to claim the
title as his own.
4. It helps the other researchers refer to the
work.
The
title
•Titles should be
clear and specific.
•It should include
variables, relationships, target population, and setting.
Ideally, it should have a maximum of
20 substantive words, with function words not included in the counting.
The
title
•Example
The Effects of Home Visits of Public Health
Nurses on the Dietary Compliance of Adult
Diabetic Patients in Two Center in Mehsana City
The
Variable
•Variable – an
attribute of a person or object that varies, that is, takes on different
values. It is anything that is liable to change or likely to vary.
Independent variable
– cause
Dependent variable –
effect
Extraneous variables
– not studied but affects results
The
Variable
•Intervening – comes
between the dependent and independent variables. Ex. - stress, anxiety, motivation
•Organismic – those
that can not be changed through manipulation. Ex. – age, sex, race
•Confounding or interfering
– interfere with the study design and the data gathering process by influencing
the subjects or the dependent variable. Ex. – social support
The
Variable
•Antecedent – occurs
earlier than the independent variable and bears a relationship both to it and
to the dependent variable. Ex.- poor health, superstitious beliefs
RANDOMIZATION is the best control over
unknown variables.
Significance
of the study
•Issues relevant in
considering the significance of the study:
1. Implications for nursing practice – Is it
able to produce evidence for nursing practice?
2. Extension of knowledge base – Is it able
to produce new knowledge which is useful?
Significance
of the study
3. Promotion of theory development – Is it
able to test or develop a new theory?
4. Correspondence to research priorities –
Is it in line with research priorities of the country, profession, or funding institutions?
Scope
and Limitations
•Scope defines
where and when the study was conducted and who the participants (subjects)
were. The scope sets the delimitations and establishes the boundaries of the
study.
•Limitations – are the weaknesses
and shortcomings of the study as acknowledged by the researcher.
Definition
of terms
•Operational definition –
description of how variables or concepts will be measured or manipulated in the
study
•Conceptual definition –
provides a variable with connotative meaning. It tells what the concept means.
Assumptions
•An assumption
is any fact presumed to be true but not actually verified. It pertains to events
or situations that seem so true that they are taken for granted. Unlike the hypothesis
it does not need testing or confirmation.
Ethics
in Research
Basic Rights
•The right to
protection from harm and discomfort.
PRINCIPLE: Beneficence – imposes a duty
on researchers to minimize harm and to maximize benefits. A related principle
is nonmaleficence (avoid, prevent or minimize harm)
•Right to full
disclosure – means that the researcher has fully described the nature of the
study, the subject’s right to refuse participation, the researcher’s
responsibilities, and the likely risks and benefits that would be incurred.
PRINCIPLE: Respect for human dignity
Basic Rights
Debriefing is communication with subjects,
generally after their participation has been completed regarding various
aspects of the study.
Basic Rights
Covert data collection or concealment
is the collection of data without the subject’s knowledge.
Deception can involve either withholding
information about the study or providing subjects with false information.
Basic Rights
Placebo is a medically harmless, ineffective
substance that is usually used in testing a new drug when it is given to a
control group. It is done to rule out any possible biases of subjects and
investigators.
Basic Rights
There
are two variations in the use of placebo
•Single blind test
design:
it is one in which the evaluations of the results of a treatment are kept from
the subjects who have received it.
Basic Rights
•Double blind test
design:
it is one in which the investigators and the subjects involved in the study are
kept ignorant about the process – that is, they are not suppose to know who are
receiving the treatment and who are not
Basic Rights
Right
to self determination means that the prospective subjects have the right to
voluntarily decide whether or not to participate in a study, without the risk
of imposing any penalties or prejudicial treatment.
Basic Rights
It
includes the right to decide at any point to terminate their participation, to
refuse to give information, or to ask for clarification about the purpose of
the study or specific study procedures
PRINCIPLE: Respect for human dignity
Basic Rights
Vulnerable subjects or persons with
diminished autonomy are those who are less advantaged because of legal or
mental incompetence, terminal illness, or confinement to an institution.
Basic Rights
The
right to full disclosure and the right to self determination are the two major
elements on which informed consent is based
Basic Rights
Informed consent means that the
subjects have adequate information regarding the research; are capable of
comprehending the information; and have the power of free choice, enabling them
to voluntarily consent to participate or decline participation in the research
study.
Basic Rights
Informed
consent involves the disclosure of the following information: subject status,
study purpose, type of information to be obtained, nature of the commitment,
sponsorship, subject selection, procedures, potential risks, costs, and
benefits, confidentiality pledge, voluntary consent, right to withdraw,
alternatives, and contact information.
Basic Rights
•Informed consent for
children is called assent. The study must be explained within the child’s level
of comprehension. Most assents are accompanied by parental consent.
Basic Rights
•Right to fair
treatment means that the subjects receive equitable treatment before, during,
and after their participation in the study.
PRINCIPLE: Justice
Basic Rights
•Right to privacy
means that researchers need to ensure that their research is not more intrusive
than it needs to be and that the subject’s privacy is maintained throughout the
study
PRINCIPLE: Justice
Basic Rights
Anonymity occurs when even the researcher can
not link a subject with the information for that subject. The subjects remain
unknown.
Basic Rights
A
promise of confidentiality to the subjects is a guarantee that any
information that the subjects provide will not be publicly reported or made
accessible to parties other than those involved in the research.
Literature Review
What
is a literature review?
•It is a collection of
materials on a topic.
•It discusses
published information in a particular subject area sometimes within a certain
time period.
What
is a literature review?
•It can be a simple
summary of sources but has an organizational pattern and combines both summary
and synthesis.
Summary
•A summary is a
recap of the important information found in the literature.
Synthesis
•A synthesis is
a re-organization, or a reshuffling of information to:
1. Give a new interpretation of old materials
2. Combine new with old interpretations
3. Trace the intellectual progression of
the field including major debates.
Purpose
•It is conducted to
generate a picture of what is known about a particular situation and the
knowledge gaps that exist in it.
Functions
•Source for research
ideas
•Orientation to what
is already known
•Provides the conceptual
or theoretical framework of the planned research
•Provides information
on research approaches and techniques.
Kinds
of literature
•Research literature: refers
to published reports of actual research studies done previously
•Conceptual literature consists
of articles or books written by authorities giving their opinions, experiences,
theories,or ideas.
Sources
for literature review
•A primary source:
is the description of an investigation written by the person who conducted it
•A secondary source:
is a description of a study or studies prepared by someone other than the original
researcher
Where
can literature be found?
•Journal articles
•Books
•Conference
proceedings
•Government and
corporate reports
•Newspapers
Where
can literature be found?
•Theses and
dissertations
•Internet – electronic
journals
•CD – ROM
•Magazines
Reading
the literatures
•Read the easier
articles first
•Scan the article –
Read the abstract first.
•Read for depth
•Allow enough time
•Do not put writing
off until you have finished reading
•Keep bibliographic information.
Writing
the literature review
•The review is not
just a list describing one published study after another but rather requires
that the author critically analyze the available literature on the topic.
•The review should be
organized into sections that present themes or identified trends.
•Revise…revise…revise
Framework
Definitions
•A framework is
the abstract, logical structure of meaning that guides the development of the
study and enables the researcher to link the findings to nursing's body of
knowledge.
•It is the conceptual
underpinnings of a study.
Definitions
•Theoretical framework is based
on theories.
•Conceptual framework is rooted
on specific concepts or conceptual model
•Both provides the
structure for examining a problem and serves as a guide to examine
relationships between variables.
The
use of a framework
•In quantitative
research, the framework is a testable theory that may emerge from a conceptual
model or may be developed inductively from published research or clinical
observations
•In qualitative
research, the initial framework is a philosophy or a worldview. A theory
consistent with the philosophy is
developed as the outcome of the study.
The
use of a framework
•Worldviews are
mental lenses or cognitive and perceptual maps that we continually use to find
our way through the social landscape surrounding us.
•They are extremely
encompassing in content and pervasive in adherence.
•They are composed of
beliefs, belief systems and social values associated with them.
Terminologies
•A concept is a
term that abstractly describes and names an object, a phenomenon, or an idea,
thus providing it with a separate identity or meaning.
•Constructs are
concepts at very high level of abstraction and have general meaning
•Variables are more
concrete and are narrow in their definition.
Terminologies
•A conceptual map
is a strategy for expressing a framework. It diagrams the interrelationships of
the concepts and statements.
Hypothesis
Definitions
•The hypothesis
is a tentative, declarative statement about the relationship between two or
more variables.
•It is a tentative
explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena or events which have occurred or
will occur.
•It is an educated
guess which needs to be tested.
Characteristics
•It should be
reasonable.
•It should state in
definite terms, the relationship between variables.
•It should be
testable.
Sources
•Observations of
phenomena
•Real life experiences
•May be generated from
relationships expressed in theories.
•Literature review
•Results of previous
researches
Types
•Null hypothesis (Ho) is a
statement of a no relationship, no difference, no effect or no interaction. It
is tested with statistics.
•Example
There is no relationship between nursing
admission test results and board examination ratings among the graduates of
nursing schools in Mehsana.
Types
•Alternative or
research hypothesis (H1) is the expectation based on theory.
This could either be:
•Directional –
specifies the direction of the relationship.
•Non-directional – only
specifies that there is a relationship.
Types
•Examples
•Directional
The higher
the nursing
admission test results, the higher is the board examination ratings.
•Non-directional
There is a
relationship between nursing admission test results and board examination
ratings among the graduates of nursing schools in Manila.
Types
•Simple hypothesis has one independent
and one dependent variable.
•Example
There is no relationship between nursing admission
test results and board examination ratings among the graduates of nursing
schools in Mehsana.
Types
•Complex hypothesis has two or more
independent and dependent variables
•Example
There is no relationship between
nursing admission test results and grade
point average to board examination ratings
and CGFNS results among the graduates of nursing schools in Mehsana.
Wording the hypothesis
•Hypothesis should specify the independent and dependent variables and the
relationship between them.
•Hypothesis should be worded in the present tense
•Hypothesis should be stated declaratively.
Remember
•Hypotheses are never proved through hypothesis
testing rather they are accepted or supported or rejected. Findings are always
tentative. If results are replicated in numerous investigations, greater
confidence can be placed in the conclusions.
Hypotheses come
to be supported with mounting evidences.
Research Designs
Definitions
•Research design is the
plan, structure, and strategy of an investigation.
•Research method is the
totality of how the study is carried out. It includes the design, sample,
setting, instruments, interventions, procedures, and data analysis.
Interrelationship:
Design, Problem, Literature Review, Framework, and Hypothesis
Quantitative
Designs
•A descriptive
design is used to identify a phenomenon of interest, identify variables
within the phenomenon, event or group in real life situations for the purpose
of discovering new meaning, describing what exists, determining the frequency
with which something occurs, and categorizing information.
Quantitative
Descriptive
•Survey designs are
employed to measure the existing phenomenon without inquiring into why it
exists. The main intention is to use the data for problem solving rather than
for hypothesis testing.
Quantitative
Descriptive
•Correlational designs help one
determine the extent to which different variables are related to each other in
the population of interest. The critical distinguishing characteristic is the
effort to estimate a relationship as distinguished from simple description.
Quantitative
Descriptive
•Comparative designs examine
and describe differences in variables in two or more groups that occur
naturally in the setting. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses are
used to examine differences between or among groups.
Quantitative
Descriptive
•Time dimensional
designs
were developed within the discipline of epidemiology where the occurrence and
distribution of disease among populations are studied. These designs examine sequences
and patterns of change, growth or change over time. The dimension of time
becomes an important factor.
Quantitative
Descriptive
•Longitudinal designs examine
changes in the same subjects over an extended period.
•Cross sectional
designs
are used to examine groups of subjects in various stages of development
simultaneously with the intent to describe changes in the phenomenon across
stages.
Quantitative
Descriptive
•Primary
longitudinal designs
1. Trend
studies: the general population is studied at different
points over a long period of time. Participants are not the same at each period
but they are representative of the population at that time.
Quantitative
Descriptive
2. Cohort studies: focus on the same specific population each
time data are collected, samples may be composed of different subjects but with
similar characteristics.
3. Panel studies: use the same respondents for each progressive time period that the data
are collected.
Characteristics
of a True Experiment
•Manipulation: the
researcher manipulates i.e. provides intervention or treatment in the
experimental group. The independent variable is manipulated to assess its
effect on the dependent variable.
Characteristics
of a True Experiment
•Control: imposing
of rules by the researcher to decrease the possibility of error and increase
the probability that the study’s findings are an accurate reflection of
reality.
•Ways of control:
1.
Homogenecity: the researcher limits the subjects to only one level of
extraneous variable to reduce the impact on study findings
2.
Blocking: including the extraneous variable as part of the design
3.
Matching: it is used when a subject in the experimental group is
randomly selected and then a subject similar in relation to important
extraneous variables is randomly selected for the control group.
Characteristics
of a True Experiment
•Randomization: each
individual in the population should have a greater than zero opportunity to be
selected for the sample. Random assignment is the assignment of subjects to
treatment conditions in a manner determined by chance.
Quantitative
Experimental
•Pre-experimental
design
is a research design that does not include mechanisms to compensate for the
absence of either randomization or a control group. Done as a preliminary
study.
Designs:
Pre-experimental
•One shot
case study
•Notation
X O
•Where:
X – Treatment/intervention
O - Posttest
Designs:
Pre-experimental
•Posttest
only design with comparison group
•Notation
Experimental group X O1
Control group O2
Designs:
Pre-experimental
•One-Group
Pretest Posttest Design
• Notation:
O1 X O2
• Where:
O1
– Pretest
X - Treatment/Intervention
O2 - Posttest
Designs:
Pre-experimental
•Static
Group Comparison
• Notation:
X O1
------------------
O2
Where:
X –
Treatment/Intervention
O1
– Experimental posttest
O2 – Control posttest
---- - Non-random selection
Quantitative
Experimental
•True experimental
designs
possess the characteristics of a true experiment.
True
Experimental Designs
•Pretest
Posttest Control Group Design or Classical Experimental Design
•Notation:
R
S O1 X
O2
____________________
R C O3 O4
True
Experimental Designs
•Where:
R – Random assignment
O1 – Experimental
pretest
O2 - Experimental posttest
O3
– Control pretest
O4
– Control posttest
X - Treatment/Intervention
S – Study group
C – Control group
True
Experimental Designs
•Solomon Four Group Design
•Notation:
R
S O1 X
O2
R
C O3 O4
R S X O5
R
C O6
Quantitative
Experimental
•Quasi-experimental
designs
are studies involving an intervention in which subjects are not randomly
assigned to treatment conditions but the researcher exercises controls to
enhance the study’s internal validity.
Quasi-experimental
Designs
•Time
series experiment
O1
O2 O3 O4
X O5 O6
O7 O8
•Non-equivalent
control group design
O1 X
O2
---------------------
O3 O4
Threats
to Experimental Validity
•Internal validity: refers to
the condition that the observed differences on the dependent variable are a
direct result of the manipulation of the independent variable, not some other
variable
Threats
to Experimental Validity
•Threats to internal
validity
History effect: an event that is not
related to the planned study but occurs during the time of the study and could
influence the responses of subjects to the treatment
Threats
to Experimental Validity
Selection threat is more likely to occur in
studies in which randomization is not possible
Maturation is defined as growing older, wiser,
stronger, hungrier, more tired, or more experienced during the study. Unplanned
and unrecognized changes can influence the findings of the study.
Threats
to Experimental Validity
Mortality is due to subjects who drop out of a
study before completion
•External validity refers to
the condition wherein the results are generalizable or applicable to groups and
environments outside of the experimental setting
Epidemiological
Designs
•Two broad
classifications
1. Observational studies – examine
associations between risk factors and outcomes
2. Intervention studies – explore the
association between interventions and outcomes
Epidemiological
Designs
•Observational
studies
1. Analytical – determinants and risk
of disease
2. Descriptive – patterns and
frequency of disease
Epidemiological
Designs
•Intervention
or experimental studies - provides the strongest clinical evidence.
1.) Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial
(RCT) - A prospective, analytical,
experimental study using primary data generated in the clinical environment.
Individuals similar at the beginning are randomly allocated to two or more
treatment groups and the outcomes the groups are compared after sufficient
follow-up time. Properly executed, the RCT is the strongest evidence of the
clinical efficacy of preventive and therapeutic procedures in the clinical
setting.
2. Randomized Cross-Over Clinical Trial -
A prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary data generated in
the clinical environment. Individuals with a chronic condition are randomly
allocated to one of two treatment groups, and, after a sufficient treatment
period and often a washout period, are switched to the other treatment for the
same period.
3. Randomized Controlled Laboratory Study -
A prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary data generated in
the laboratory environment. Laboratory studies are very powerful tools for
doing basic research because all extraneous factors other than those of
interest can be controlled or accounted for (e.g., age, gender, genetics,
nutrition, environment, co-morbidity, strain of infectious agent)
Observational
studies
1. Cohort (Incidence, Longitudinal Study)
- A prospective, analytical, observational
study, based on data, usually primary, from a follow-up period of a group in
which some have had, have or will have the exposure of interest, to determine
the association between that exposure and an outcome.
2. Case-Control Study - A
retrospective, analytical, observational study often based on secondary data in
which the proportion of cases with a potential risk factor are compared to the
proportion of controls (individuals without the disease) with the same risk factor.
The common association measure for a case-control study is the odds ratio.
3. Ecologic
(Aggregate) Study - An observational
analytical study based on aggregated secondary data. Aggregate data on risk
factors and disease prevalence from different population groups is compared to
identify associations.
4. Cross-Sectional (Prevalence Study) Study
- A descriptive study of the
relationship between diseases and other factors at one point in time (usually)
in a defined population
5.
Case Series - A descriptive,
observational study of a series of cases, typically describing the
manifestations, clinical course, and prognosis of a condition.
6.
Case Report - Anecdotal evidence. A description of a single case,
typically describing the manifestations, clinical course, and prognosis of that
case.
Qualitative
Designs
•Qualitative designs uses systematic,
interactive approach which is used to describe life experiences and give them
meaning.
Qualitative
Phenomenology
•Phenomenological
design
is used to describe experiences as they are lived
•Bracketing is the
suspension of the researcher’s preconceptions, prejudices and beliefs so that
they do not interfere with or influences their description of the respondent’s
experience.
Qualitative
Grounded Theory
•Grounded theory provides
a way to transcend experience – to move it from a description of what is
happening to understanding the process by which it happens.
Qualitative
Ethnographic
•Ethnographic design provides
a mechanism for studying our own culture and that of others.
Qualitative
Historical
•Historical design is the
systematic collection and critical evaluation of data relating to past
occurrences.
External criticism: authenticity and
genuiness of data
Internal criticism: worthiness or
truthfulness of data
Qualitative
Philosophical Inquiry
•Philosophical inquiry considers
an idea or an issue from all perspectives by extensively exploring the
literature, examining conceptual meaning, raising questions, providing answers,
and suggesting the implications of those answers.
Qualitative
Critical Social Theory
•Critical social
theory
dares to question the unquestioned and uncovers injustice and inequity in the
society.
Qualitative
Feminist Research
• Feminist research
is based on the premise that gender is a central construct in a society that
privileges men and marginalizes women. It seeks to equalize power relations by
using a broad range of methodologies.
Case
Study
•Involves an extensive
exploration of a single unit of study, such as a person, family, group,
community, or institution, or a very small number of subjects who are examined
intensively.
It may have both quantitative and qualitative
elements.
Used for rare, interesting, or representative
cases
Triangulation
•It is the combined
use of two or more theories, methods, data sources, investigators, or analysis
methods in the study of the same phenomenon.
Remember
The KEY in choosing the research design
The
best research design is the one that is most appropriate for the problem and
the purpose of the study.
Sample
Definitions
•Sampling involves
selecting a group of people, events, behaviors, or other elements with which to
conduct a study.
•Sampling plan defines
the process of making the selection.
•Sample defines
the selected group of people or elements.
•Population or target
population
is the entire set of individuals or elements who meet the sampling criteria.
Definitions
•Sampling criteria list the
characteristics essential for membership in the target population.
•Accessible population is the
portion of the target population to which the researcher has reasonable access.
•Elements are the
entities that make up the sample or the population
Definitions
•Sampling frame is a list
of all cases, objects, or groups of cases in the populations.
•Generalizing means
that the findings can be applied to the population.
•Representativeness means
that the sample must be like the population in as many ways as possible.
Categories
of Sampling Plans
•Probability sampling: a
process in which each element of the population has an equal chance of being
chosen for the sample. There is randomization.
•Non-probability sampling:
elements are selected by non-random methods
Sample
Size
RULE: The larger the sample, the more
representative of the population.
•Minimum acceptable
sample size
1. Descriptive: 10 – 20% of the population
2. Correlational: 30 subjects
3. Ex post facto: 15 subjects
4. Experimental: 15 – 30 subjects per
group
Gay and
Diehl,1992
Sample
Size
•Slovin’s Formula
n
= N
1 + Ne2
Where: n = sample size
N = population
e = desired margin of error
( 0.05 or 0.01 )
Probability
Techniques
•Simple random: sampling
by chance either by lottery or by the use of table of random numbers
•Stratified random: involves
taking certain areas of the population, dividing the areas into sections, and
then taking a random sample from each section.
•Systematic sampling: every
nth name from a roster of names can be taken as sample.
K
= N/n
Where: K
= sampling interval
N =
population
n =
sample size
•Cluster sampling: sampling in
groups
•Multi-stage sampling: used for
extremely large populations. It proceeds through a set of stages from larger to
smaller sampling units.
Non-probability
Techniques
•Purposive or
judgmental: subjects are hand picked to be included in the sample,
based upon the researcher’s knowledge of the population.
•Quota sampling:
researchers identify strata of the population and then determine how many
participants are needed from each stratum to meet a quota.
•Accidental,
convenience, incidental: utilizes readily available subjects
•Snowball or network: subjects
act as informants who identify others for inclusion in the sample who in turn
leads to more samples
Steps
in Sampling
•General outline of
procedures
1. Identify the target population
2. Identify the accessible population
3. Decide the sample size and how the sample
will be taken.
4. Recruit subjects according to the
designated plan.
5. Obtain the subject’s cooperation.
N.B. The steps may vary from one sampling design
to another
Qualitative
sampling
•Sample size is not
predetermined in qualitative research
•Saturation: is the
point in data gathering where no new data emerge therefore sampling is stopped.
There is data repetition.
Data
Collection
Goal and Purpose
•
Goal – to collect data
that are meaningful for the purpose of the study
•
Meaningful data depend on the
quality of the instrument employed in the process
•
No amount of sophisticated statistics can
salvage a poor set of data gathered through defective instruments.
Questionnaire
•
Questionnaire: a paper and pencil
instrument completed by the study subjects
•
Formats
1. Checklist
2. Multiple Choice
3. Rating Scales: list an ordered series of
categories of a variable assumed to be based on an underlying continuum.
A numerical value is assigned to each category.
Questionnaire
Formats
•
Checklist
•
Multiple Choice
•
Rating Scale and
Ranking Type
Interview
•
Interview involves verbal
communication between the researcher and the subject
•
Interview structure is the
amount of direction and restriction imposed by the interview situation
Interview Types
• Structured: the
interviewer has a list of prepared questions in the form of an interview
schedule
• Unstructured
interview:
more like a conversation. The interviewer uses an interview guide
Interview Tools
Observation
•
Observation: involves looking at
the phenomenon
•
Used to study human behavior
•
Hawthorne effect: is the effect on the
dependent variable caused by the subject’s awareness that they are participants
in a study
Types of
Observation
•
Structured observation is one in
which aspects of the phenomenon to be observed are decided in advance
•
Unstructured observation is a
nonselective description of the phenomenon to be observed
Types of
Observation
•
Participant observation is done
when the researcher is involved in the setting with the subject
•
Non-participant observation is when
the researcher is merely viewing the situation
Records
•
Records are prepared and
preexisting data
•
Selective deposit and selective survival are
the two major sources of bias.
•
Records available for use may not constitute
the entire set of all possible data.
Physiologic
Measurement
• Physiologic
measurements are techniques used to measure physiologic variables
either directly or indirectly. This is also called biophysiologic measures
•
Used in clinical nursing studies
•
The choice of the physiologic measure is
dependent upon its ability to yield good information.
Physiologic Measurement
Criteria
for effective question
•
Clarity of language
•
Specificity of content and time period
•
Singleness of purpose
•
Freedom from assumption
•
Freedom from suggestion
•
Linguistic completeness
•
Grammatical consistency
Types of
questions
•
Closed ended: respondents answer a
number of alternative responses
1. Dichotomous: two response alternative
2. Multichotomous: multiple responses
•
Open ended: respondents are
given enough flexibility to answer questions or specify answers other than
those found in the questionnaire
Characteristics
of tools
•
Validity refers to the ability
of a data gathering instrument to measure what it is supposed to measure and to
obtain data relevant to what is being measured.
•
Reliability refers to the
ability to obtain consistent results when reused.
Data Analysis and
Interpretation
Data Analysis
•Data analysis is the
systematic organization and synthesis of research data and, in most
quantitative studies, the testing of the hypotheses using those data.
Quantitative Analysis
•The manipulation of
numerical data through statistical procedures for the purpose of describing
phenomenon or assessing the magnitude and reliability of relationships among
them.
Quantitative Analysis
•Purposes of
statistics
Summarize
Organize
Evaluate
Numeric
Interpret
Information
Communicate
Quantitative Analysis
•Factors to consider
in choosing the appropriate statistical test
1. Purpose of the study
2. Research questions
3. Number and measure of variables
4. Sampling technique and sample size
5. Availability of statistical software
6. Ability of the researcher
Quantitative Analysis
•Branches of
statistics
1. Descriptive statistics used to
describe and synthesize data obtained from empirical observations and
measurements.
2. Inferential statistics: it is
concerned with making decisions about a large body of data in the population of
interest by using a sample of that universe.
Quantitative Analysis
•A set of data can be
summarized in terms of 3 characteristics
1. Shape of distribution
2. Central tendency
3. Variability
QUAN - Shape of distribution
•Frequency
distribution is a systematic arrangement of numerical values from the
lowest to the highest, together with a count of the number of times each value
was obtained.
•A frequency
distribution can be obtained graphically by means of a frequency polygon
QUAN - Shape of distribution
•Scores in a pilot
survey on patient satisfaction
1 4
3 4
3 3
2 2
5 1
3 2
2 3
4 3
1
= Very dissatisfied 4 = Satisfied
2
= Dissatisfied 5 = Very
Satisfied
3
= A little satisfied
QUAN - Shape of distribution
•Frequency
distribution
Frequency Table
_________________________________
Score Frequency (f) Percentage
1 2 12.50%
2 4 25.00%
3 6 37.50%
4 3 18.75%
5 1 6.25%
n = 16 100%
QUAN - Shape of distribution
•Frequency
polygon
QUAN - Shape of distribution
•A distribution is
said to be symmetrical in shape if when folded over, the two halves of a
frequency polygon would be superimposed.
Shape:
Symmetrical Distributions
Shape:
Symmetrical Distributions
Shape:
Asymmetrical Distributions
Positively
Skewed: Tail points to the right
Shape:
Asymmetrical Distributions
•Example – Positively
skewed distribution
Personal income – most people have low to
moderate income with very few at the tail end. The mean is larger than the
median because there are so many low scores.
Shape:
Asymmetrical Distributions
Negatively
skewed: Tail points to the left
Shape:
Asymmetrical Distributions
•Example – Negatively
skewed distribution
Age at death – most people die when they are
old, few die when they are young. The bulk of the people are at the upper end
of the distribution. The median is larger than the mean because there are so
many high scores.
Shape:
Kurtosis
•Kurtosis explains the
degree of peakedness of the curve, which is related to the spread of variance of
scores.
•Extreme kurtosis can
affect the validity of statistical analysis because the scores have little
variation
Shape:
Kurtosis
QUAN – Central Tendency
•Mode – that
numerical value in a distribution that occurs most frequently
•Median – that
point in a distribution above which and below which 50% of the subjects fall
•Mean – the
point on the score scale that is equal to the sum of scores divided by the
number of scores. It is also known as average.
QUAN – Variability
•Standard deviation (SD)
captures the degree to which the scores deviate from one another. The SD tells
us how much on the average the scores deviate from the mean. It also tells us
the homogenecity or heterogenecity of the group.
•Range is the
highest score minus the lowest score.
QUAN – Measurement levels
•Nominal – lowest
level; name categories; assignment of numbers to simply classify
characteristics into categories
•Ordinal –
attributes are ordered or ranked according to some criterion
•Interval The distance between
0 ≠ 0 any 2 numbers on the
•Ratio –
Highest scale are
0 = 0 of known and
equal size
Qualitative Analysis
•Qualitative analysis is the
organization and interpretation of non-numerical data for the purpose of
discovering important underlying dimensions and patterns of relationships
Qualitative Analysis
Data analysis
components
Qualitative Analysis
•Categories are
underlying regularities, concepts, and clusters of concepts.
•Themes develop
within categories of data. They emerge from the data. A theme is an abstract
entity that brings meaning and identity to experiences and its variant
manifestations. It captures and unifies the nature or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole.
Qualitative Analysis Process
•Comprehending – making
sense of the data and learning “what is going on” and preparing a thorough
description of the phenomenon.
Qualitative Analysis Process
•Synthesizing – involves
sifting of the data and putting pieces together. Researchers get a sense of
what is typical with regard to the phenomenon and what variation is like.
Qualitative Analysis Process
•Theorizing –
involves a systematic sorting of the data. Researchers develop alternative
explanations of the phenomenon and then hold these explanations up to determine
their fit with the data.
Qualitative Analysis Process
•Recontextualizing –
involves the further development of the theory such that its applicability to
other settings or groups is explored.
Writing the Research Report
Purpose
in writing the report
•To communicate in
writing: the problem investigated, the methods used, the findings generated,
the interpretation of results, the integration with the theory, what
conclusions have been drawn at the end, and how the findings relate to past
research.
Writing
the introduction and problem
•Go directly into what
the problem is investigating.
•State the rationale.
•Include key previous
researches to strengthen the reason for the investigation.
•Include the
significance,scope and limitations, & definition of terms.
Writing
the literature review
•Include conflicting
viewpoints of various authors.
•State how each
literature relates to the topic under investigation.
•Put together references
saying the same thing.
•Learn to choose ONLY relevant
literature.
Writing
the methodology
•Include the research
design and the justification of why it was chosen.
•Present the
population and the sampling design, setting, and sample size.
•Describe the tool
used together with the validity and reliability testing.
•Discuss how the data was
analyzed.
Writing
the results & discussion
•Present results in a
logical order with the research question as guide.
•Use tables, figures,
and other devises to maximize the lucidity of the presentation.
•Text should be
followed by tables.
•Consistency in style
should be followed in writing the discussion.
•RESULTS are data bound:
DISCUSSION is data based
Writing
the summary
•The summary puts
together the highlights of the important findings of the investigation.
•Look back at the
questions and tie them up with the main findings.
•Do not write
everything in the findings in the summary.
Writing
the conclusions
•REMEMBER: the
conclusion is an abstraction drawn from the summary of findings and is tied
from the question investigated.
Writing
recommendations
•Recommendations
should have a logical link with the data and the conclusions.
•Recommendations are
geared towards: education, practice, future research, population or institution
if applicable.
Characteristics
of scientific writing
•Simplicity
•Conciseness
•Straight forwardness
•Consistency in the
use of terms
•Continuity through
transitional sentences
•Accuracy
•Parsimony
Communicating Research
Communicating research
•Communicating
research findings, the final step in the research process,
involves developing a research report and disseminating it through
presentations and publications to audiences of nurses, health care professionals,
policy makers, and health consumers.
Advantages
•Researchers are able
to advance the knowledge of a discipline.
•Researchers receive
personal recognition and professional advancement
•It promotes critique
and replication
•It helps identify
additional problems
•Promotes the use of
research findings in practice
•Avenues for
communicating research
•Publication in
journals including on-line journals
•Oral presentation in
conferences
•Poster presentation
in conferences
•Publication in
conference proceedings
•Publication in other
sources e.g. books, newspapers, magazines
Thank You
Dr. Jayesh V. Patidar
Email: nursingpath31@gmail.com
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
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